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Computerworld - Supercomputing is all about pushing out the leading edge of computer speed and performance. The sports metaphors that arise as research sites compete to create the fastest supercomputer sometimes obscure the goal of crunching numbers that had previously been uncrunchable—and thereby providing information that had previously been inaccessible.

Supercomputers have been used for weather forecasting, fluid dynamics (such as modeling air flow around airplanes or automobiles) and simulations of nuclear explosions—applications with vast numbers of variables and equations that have to be solved or integrated numerically through an almost incomprehensible number of steps, or probabilistically by Monte Carlo sampling.

The first machine generally referred to as a supercomputer (though not officially designated as one), the IBM Naval Ordnance Research Calculator, was used at Columbia University from 1954 to 1963 to calculate missile trajectories. It predated microprocessors, had a clock speed of 1 microsecond and was able to perform about 15,000 operations per second.

About half a century later, the latest entry to the world of supercomputers, IBM's Blue Gene/L at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, will have 131,072 microprocessors when fully assembled and was clocked at 135.3 trillion floating-point operations per second (TFLOPS) in March.

The computer at Livermore will be used for nuclear weapons simulations. The Blue Gene family will also be used for biochemical applications, reflecting shifts in scientific focus, making intricate calculations to simulate protein folding specified by genetic codes.

The early history of supercomputers is closely associated with Seymour Cray, who designed the first officially designated supercomputers for Control Data Corp. in Minneapolis in the late 1960s. His first design, the CDC 6600, had a pipelined scalar architecture and used the RISC instruction set that his team developed. In this architecture, a single CPU overlaps fetching, decoding and executing instructions to process one instruction each clock cycle.

Cray pushed the number-crunching speed available from the pipelined scalar architecture with the CDC 7600 before developing a four-processor architecture with the CDC 8600. Multiple processors, however, raised operating system and software issues.

When Cray left CDC in 1972 to start his own company, Cray Research Inc., in his boyhood hometown of Chippewa Falls, Wis., he abandoned the multiprocessor architecture in favor of vector processing, a split that divides supercomputing camps to this day.

Cray Research pursued vector processing, in which hardware was designed to unwrap "for" or "do" loops. Using a CDC 6600, the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) produced a 10-day forecast in 12 days. But using one of Cray Research's first products, the Cray 1-A, the ECMWF was able to produce a 10-day forecast in five hours.